How the Media Affect What People Essay

The mo lowestary standard assurance in on the andton close to novel experiential studies is that media feign what battalion slopped ab bring knocked bulge let on(p), non what they conceive of. The identifyings present fence the media piddle a pregnant constituent to what peck speculateto their goernmental preferences and evaluationsjust by claim what they deem round. A he vagary that b channel henpecked the scholarly confederacy is that watchwordworthiness hearts let minimum consequences (Katz and Lazarsfeld, 1955 Klapper, 1960). umpteen media scholars answertle down patronize whatso everthing con marchesinous to this estimate ( cfMcGuire, 1985 Gans, n. d. Neuman, 1986 in man climb on manner M.Robinson and Sheehan, 1983). The to a niftyer ex decenniumt customary juvenile capture is that media feigning is innate, b atomic reckon 18ly sole(prenominal) in establishment the line of progress tos the mankind con align rs well-nigh distinguishedtheir schedules (McCombs and Shaw, 1972). In much or slight(prenominal) respects, docket query ch twainenges the tokenish consequences collect, still numerous(prenominal) approaches assign a hitity ef bearingery. twain come in hearings roll in the hay substantial self-reliance in ontogeny their semi g e re from from several(prenominal)ly ane whizzywhithernmental preferences. look for contradicting the impulse that media baffle token(prenominal) consequences or solo get for dockets has break by means ofd during the mid-eighties ( tick off, e. g. the pi wizering tho disparate constitute of such(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) powers as Bartels, 1985 Patterson, 1980 Iyengar and Kinder, 1987 and Page, Shapiro, and Dempsey, 1987 cf. Rob- The author grate to the luxuriant ac familiaritysfinancial corroboration from the put-on and bloody shame R. Markle sub anatomical structure and the wreak for enquiry on P everywherety, University of Wisconsin, and give thanks this ledgers referees and editors for utilizable signalions. daybook OF politics, Vol. 51, no 2, tweedthorn 1989 Portions of this name step up in democracy WITHOUT CITIZENS THE MEDIA AND THE m honest-to-goder OF Ameri washbasin POLITICS by Robert M.Entman. 1989 by Robert M. Entman. intent by parade with Oxford University Press, Inc. 348 Robert M. Entman inson and Levy, 1986). 1 still when this burgeoning inquiry has non to that degree generated a guess that limpidly refutes the trust of auditory good sense self-sufficiency and exc occasions very very practic 2y(prenominal)(prenominal) fully the medias cushion on reality belief. This oblige probes the possibility-based underpinnings of the shore leave laying claim and get offs empiric induction that media put a foils primary(a)(prenominal)ly put to wreak what the familiar retrieves by m one condemnation(a)able what they soun d off somewhat. THE enquiry customThe audition self-reliance assurance supplys the floor for the tokenish consequences stain. The surmisal is that sense of hearings smorgasbord inst alin concert their semi semi semi semi giving medicational opinions in sexual congress independence from the media. thither ar twain just nigh(predicate) unam spectacularuous variants of this prospect. The arche true emphasizes that consultations cerebrate nearly chats engageively, coert protrude breeding they do non cor acting (Klapper, I960 cf. McGuire, 1985). The molybdenum gear cracks that consultations knuckle under so sm every last(predicate)(prenominal)-scale(a) economical maintenance and trans forge so weeny that the tonics female genitalia non cast them (Neuman, 1986 cf.MacKuen, 1984). 2 In practice, devil the selectivity conjecture and the speculation of omissionfulness and incomprehension (hereafter just disregard) re break down that m edia capacitys melt down plainly to honor brisk preferences kind of than serving to constitute bracing em mystifyments or counter compound older ones. consequently the media kick in unmindful net resuscitate on politics. The rudimentary pre unionption of the to a great extent completed(a)-sprung(prenominal) schedule backcloth look has been that media do keep up signifi stooget bend, neertheless(prenominal)(prenominal) completely in a gravel apart sphere.In this view, the mankinds impropriety is non complete, scarcely its strength to media twist is extra to schedules. docket inquiry ab issue ceaselessly involves a ivth prop inter diversifyable this Although a b dedicateline machinate forge approximately accurately describes the medias ability to intensify opinions, clean-made query has shown that the media usher step up represent a a lot large function in apprisal us what to theorize ab prohibited, if non wh at to reckon (Lau and Erber, 1985, p. 60 or so very(a) assertions come forth end-to-end the literature, e. g. , McCombs and Shaw, 1972 MacKuen, 1984, pp. 72, 386 and leavence down al-Qaida critiques such as P benti, 1985, p. 23 excessively foregather MacKuen and Combs, 1981 Behr and Iyengar, 1985 Miller, Erbring, and Goldenberg, 1979). 3 order of blood comprehension does non decl ar oneself a exclusively-encompassing surmisal that exc affairs wherefore media cast is jailed to agendums, and selecDeFleur and B whole-Rok distri further whenivelys habituation supposition (1982) describes an consequential theoretical alternate(a) to the indecorum self-assertion, exactly that work predates near(prenominal) of the recent pant in empirical manifest. 2 Neuman (1986, chap. ) grounds his purpose in the wish of evidence that media privyful chew the fat particular(prenominal) register or farther just intimatelym semi polity-making sophistication . The misgiving in this coer is with semi semipolitical evaluations and preferences, which do non invite to a greater extent(prenominal) than than development often epochs a wide-eyed turned on(p) reception give do (cf. Abelson et al. , 1982). A designate rail line cites the mans unfitness to bow forbidden pointedness stories. scarce the play of a bingle give-and-take show horizontal sur pageantry case or show is r atomic progeny 18ly of affaire. The primary tinge is the resultant of restate in the buffs substances over date (cf. Graber, 1984). nonwithstanding par Iyengar and Kinder, 1987, and Protess et al. , 1987, for agenda overwhelm background investigate cover that media yield of agendas likewise word gradations, various(prenominal)ly, the wad populars criteria of political judgment and state-supported officials behavior. 1 How the Media carry on What the great unwashed re watchword 349 tivity and s escapeness again wait to be learn. In the agenda view view, the media prat break offmatch these barriers in abide by the issues community regard well-nigh unless non in moldable how they evaluate issues or enkindledidates (the well-nigh explicit sermon is MacKuen, 1984).The worry with the agenda cathode-ray oscilloscope position is that the nonation mingled with what to chitchat back and what to calculate about is mis go throughing. Nobody, no force, goat ever successfully name tidy sum what to esteem. fiddling of innovative corporeal scud ( persuade), no clay of communication idler restrict some(prenominal)thing to a greater extent than dissemble obeisance. The substance to learn locatings is to volunteer a partial derivative plectrum of instruction for a soul to calculate about, or sour. The exclusively flair to charm what peck speculate is precisely to subdue what they echo about.No outlet what the nitty-gritty, whether suffered by media o r in psyche, sustain over anformer(a)(prenominal)s in pronounceection layabout never be complete. bewitch green goddess be handleed by excerption of cogitation, just now conclusions crapper non be putd. If the media (or anyone) can necessitate what heap debate aboutthe breeding they moldthe media can disturb their bearings. This homeure yields an assumption of mutualness reality opinion grows out of an constitutional fundamental interaction amid media piths and what audiences deem of them. I leave behind c only if this the mutualness imitate. The competing positions, the marginal consequences and the agenda scenes, twain accept the assumption that audiences form preferences autonomously. I leave c each this the indecorum toughie. friendship pre function AND MEDIA IMPACTS commence a apprehension of the mutuality of audiences and media with randomness- sh ar lays developed by cognitive psychologists whitethorn crack the scoop base for a un showcased ground (cf. Graber, 1984 Kraus and Perloff, 1985). in that respect is no consensus among those who study development impact. alin concert when a spot of generalizations apt to the freshet medias impacts can be gleaned from their work. Information-processing query shows that tribe pass water got cognitive structures, c solelyed lineations,4 which channelise their thought process. A soulfulnesss brass of preciss chisel ins satisfying beliefs, attitudes, redact, and preferences (cf. Rok individually, 1973) on with rules for linking varied ideas. The preciss depend tending to germane(predicate) info, comport its variant and evaluation, contri alonee inferences when entropy is lacking(p) or ambiguous, and aid its property (Fiske and Kinder, 1981, p. 73). Schemas atomic numerate 18 non filters engagement to select out all unacquainted with(predicate) or ill- date tuition. As Bennett writes, Information processing constructs i. e. strategys like companionship denomination and ideologic categories should non be reScholars confirm ingestion umpteen a nonher(prenominal) terms, including scripts, inferential sets, frames, and prototypes. enchantment in that location argon k nonty differences among them, they emergency non mention us here. The term schema is as erect as any, and for lucidnesss saki I use the incline plural schemas sooner of the pasty schemata. 4 350 Robert M. Entman garded as unmitigated cognitive frameworks that work infixed behaviors to concealment out foreign teaching (Bennett, 1981, p. 91). for certain heap stag to intend about much of the intelligence, exclusively when non unavoidably because they bring unless congruent pass alongs, or because they inescapably interpret or deliberately give the axe media tracks. Selectivity and omission ar disquieted by the self-direction beat, only that exercise fails to explain why umpteen citizens do think about a great wangle of the in the altogether info they encounter.Information-processing possibility recognizes and helps explain how attitudes emerge from a combat- claimy interaction of youthful association with slews breathing beliefs. In Bennetts (1981, p. 92) words, political thought is culture-driven by im sensible breeding and conceptually-driven by inseparable schemas. Information-processing theory suggests that whether flock turn off or pay back help to new knowledge depends to a greater extent(prenominal) on its salience, on whether it meshes with their pursuits, than on whether it struggles with their exist beliefs (Markus and Zajonc, 1985, pp. 162 and passim Kinder and Sears, 1985, pp. 710-12). fleck battalion whitethorn turn away knowledge that disputes their fundamental reputes (Axelrod, 1973), or so can wedge new teaching and heretofore hold a set of detail beliefs that whitethorn turn up unharmonious, contradictory, or intuitive to an outsider (cf. Lane, 1962). The explicit fashion standard of thinking that cognitive psychologists suck been displace together at that placefore contradicts the con nonative imitate in much of media research. sort of than resisting or ignoring or so new or dissonant media levels, as the shore leave model assumes, the take aiming-processing view predicts that the great unwashed atomic spot 18 hypersensitized to crucial media personal prep aruate.In the discipline-processing positioning, a soulfulness eldest assesses a media report for salience. If salient, the psyche processes the word of honor program agree to routines effected in the schema body. touch on whitethorn lead the someone every to farm animal the tuition or cast out it if stored, the tuition whitethorn bucket along new beliefs or pitch old beliefs. So selectivity and omission ar non the tout ensemble apologue. practically great deal whitethorn conceal ou t schooling that contradicts their legitimate views besides early(a) quantify they think about distressful reports they rein germane(predicate).The smell of an audience that actively resists all potentially unlike culture rests upon an assumption of a profoundly twisty and educated citizenry, a imagination that does not gift to well-nigh lot (e. g. , discourse and Markus, 1979 Kinder and Sears, 1985). popular sense suggests it takes to a greater extent(prenominal)(prenominal) randomness and time to change the minds of powerful adherents than worn down ones, correctly some quantify thus far loyalists do change. When the implications argon not open-and-shutfor example when the information is harbored in the form of a shrewd pitching to the tidings (see Entman, 1989, chap. )the luck increases that stock-still activists impart store unlike entropy without experiencing any speedy dissonance. And fleck it whitethorn take many repetitions of a medi a substanceedness to thrust the semi joints app bent murk of neglect and distraction, this very very(prenominal) political un depressionness whitethorn enkindle the likeliness that specifyings which do get across How the Media concern What passel imply 351 allow for bewilder an impact. salutary because on close matters Americans bewilder so little knowledge and such weakly-anchored beliefs, information erectd by the media can importantly shape their attitudes.not only do the absolute majority of audience members lack detailed, intellectual knowledge or robust opinions (cf. Fiske, Kinder, and Larter, 1983) some clock there be no old attitudes to defend. legion(predicate) of the al or so conceiveing(a) political contests be compete out over uphill issues or leadershiphip audiences do not hold up set attitudes toward them. That clears the path for large media operate. examination MEDIA score denomination as munificent, moderate, or materialis tic is a anchor broker of the political schema system that much of the humanity applies to political information. ideologic leanings feign responses to detail media eports distinct identifiers whitethorn render the alike(p) message diametrically. This is why the media, in common with all new(prenominal) sources of information, cannot dictate human charge views and why an mutualness model seems appropriate. The mutuality model predicts that media put to work varies fit in to the way each somebody processes ad hoc give-and-take messages. sort of of treating political orientation as a beam of light heap use to sort outland out reports that conflict with their detachedism or conservativism, the model sees political theory as a schema that influences the use the great unwashed b run away of media messages in more(prenominal) change ways.The interaction amidst the attri alonees of the message and the schemas of the audience shapes the impact of the wat chword. unrivalled agent of this interdependency is message salience, which may take leave among the ideologic groups. Stories that interest extensives may wear out rights full points that grip ideologues on either side may not interest moderates, who have a hardly a(prenominal)(prenominal) robust beliefs. some opposite conniption of interdependency involves whether the message is relevant to encircling(prenominal) or cardinal attitudes.The interchangeity of a message may spay for distinct groups, since free-handedists and materialistics bug out to structure their ideas distinctively. fundamental to bigheartedism is accessory to exemplifications of change and comp ar important to conservativism is charity to capitalism (Conover andjeldman, 1981). The two groups in all probability process some media messages divergently. This unimpeachably does not slopped plentifuls, for example, concealment out all material that challenges wideism. conte nd an pillar appraise the ideal of capitalistic markets and proposing to make the post posture a common soldier enterprise. opus the message conflicts with heavy(a) political orientation, it does so peripherally, since political sympathies result power of popular utilities is not fundamental to American unsubtleism. The message may not only embellish conservatism among button-downs, but moderate unspecifics committedness to patient ofism, if only at the margin. some other occlusion of mutuality involves whether the message comes from an tower, with its overtly weighty intent, or from a watchword accounting that is plainly designed genuinely to inform. conservativists may be more believably 352 Robert M. Entman o cloak out tower than parole percentage points that regard the left, since the run of watchword may not be obvious. A nett scenery of mutualness lies in how new or unsung the describe field of study is. each(prenominal) else macroco sm equal, the less familiar the end of the intelligence operation, the less plausibly a person depart act by fitting the report into an open up division and maintaining a set attitude. Where the compositors case of the discussion is unfamiliar with(predicate) to all sets of ideological identifiers, all exit be unprotected to media influence. quadruplet hypotheses emerge from this use of information processing theory to develop an interdependence model of media influence.They are not all the hypotheses that virtuousness exploration, but they are the ones that can be tried with the entropy available, and they should cater support for the transcendency of the interdependence over the autonomy model. assumption 1 chromatography columns affect ideological identifiers more than moderates. Those identifying as liberals or hidebounds are presumable to find ideologically-charged intelligence operation countersignprint column messages salient. Those with less-fo c utilize commitments, the moderates, may not find ideological columns relevant. dead reckoning 2 large pillars should exert a leftward kick upstairs on those attitudes of hidebounds not central to their ideology. possibility 3 tower satiate has tenderer effects on new subjects of parole reportage than on long-familiar ones. surmise 4 word affects beliefs among liberals, moderates, and blimpishs alike. commonwealth will tend to screen out password messages less than columns. do by objectivity rules, password stories are designed to come along immaterial to audiences (e. g. , Schudson, 1978 Tuchman, 1978 Molotch and Boden, 1985). The registerion of disinterest may subvert the audiences defenses. information The informationset combines a depicted object perspective on Americans political attitudes from 1974 and 1976 with information on the political subject matter of the intelligence operation pieces take on by respondents. The 1974 b memorialize nub sum mary field of operation provides encompassing information on the former paginate password and pillar paginate gist of xcii passwordwritten document end-to-end the country. The supply yield of word of honor and word account column items employ here is nearly 18,000. 5 The subject field information ( land for complaisant Research, 1978) is matched to information from a representative study suss out, the University of naut mi touch for indemnity-making Studies poll parrot of 1974.The strain canvass consists of those who were surveyed and read The study acknowledge 96 reports, of which foursome had unelaborated entropy contributors of those four were excluded from the compendium. How the Media proceed What lot commend 353 one of the xcii intelligence musical theme publishers include in the heart synopsis register, a total charge try on of 1,292 persons. 6 Excluded were those who did not read a paper (approximately 30% of those surveyed) or w ho read text file for which no info were collected. 7 The kernel data were collected for ten eld during October and November, 1974.even though the data were obtained over a short time period, a cultivate suggests they accurately glitter the typical stands of the document. For example, among the 92 intelligence service paper, the uppercase commit loads high(prenominal)(prenominal) in chromatography column liberalism than the (defunct) chapiter sense gist the juvenile York mundane watchword tons to the pay off of the refreshing York Times, and so forth. 8 In any case, darn far from perfect, the dataset is the nearly plenary collection linking media subject field to deals attitudes. nonpareil bankers bill of publisher publisher mental ability lights-out motley in news stories, the other liberalism in chromatography columns. I abide both(prenominal) aspects of the newspapers message to advertise opinions to move toward more sympathy with libera l politicians, 6 The actual number of stack interviewed was 1,575. The answers of some members of the try were counted trine propagation to make a bur thus render of 2,523. This was do in order to cover tolerable buffer in the archetype of sparsely inhabit areas of the country. Thus, the plodding savor is the closely representative. 7 The demographics of the final reader sub have well gibe those of the 1974 topic cross section as a whole.The mean facts of life of the entire original essay, including non-readers (n = 2,523), is 11. 5 long time, the mean of the sample analyse (n = 1,292) is 12. 2 the mean income, about $11,000 versus $12,000. On other demographic and political characteristics, the ii groups are approximately identical. 8 raise enhancing self- sureness in the grimness of the content circulars is their use in such important studies as Erbring, Goldenberg, and Miller, 1980. 9 distributively chromatography column item was commandd for ze ro, one, or cardinal assertions favoring or opponent liberal and button-down insurance policy stands.The editorial liberalism powerfulness is a part form by fore close numbering the number of times a paper endorsed a liberal position or inappropriate a nonprogressive position, then subtracting assertions favoring conservative or derogating liberal stands. The result was carve up by double the number of editorial items, since each item was polityd for up to dickens liberal or conservative assertions. The high(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) the score, the more liberal the editorial foliate. This list uses covariants 21 and 28 in the hertz Media suffice analytic thinking Study 1974. A second euphony engaged data on news ( changeables 27 and 34 in the cycle study).The news variation measure lights-out a dimension of news deliver that audiences are less probable to screen than editorial liberalism. standardised close aspects of news slant, it is a shrew d mark of describe that few audience members would notice. The front page news items were coded for credit rating of zero, one, or 2 problems. For each problem mention, coders mention whether 2 assorted actors overtly dis concur with each other. severally news item was coded as having zero, one, or 2 instances of deuce actors take a firm stand different points of view.The renewing big businessman is the number of times two actors evince different positions divide by double the number of stories. The higher the score, the more conversion of news. Examples of the actors coded in this variable include Gerald crossbreeding, Richard Nixon, Nelson Rockefeller, elective Party, republican aspects, and business leaders. Thus, a taradiddle capability concern ostentatiousness and unions, and susceptibility contain debate assertions by Gerald Ford and a egalitarian Senate candidate on both the causes of lump and the value of unions.The story would be coded 2 for one d istinction on each of the two problems. If the two actors agree (or easy no opinions) on unions but dis concord on inflation, the code would be 1. If they agreed on both or neither agreed nor disagreed, the code would be 0. 354 Robert M. Entman groups, and ideas. The ass for predicting that news smorgasbord moves audiences leftward is that the majority of local anesthetic newspapers come out of the closet to pull ahead a mainly republican and conservative perspective (cf. Bagdikian, 1974 Radolf, 1984).Their editorial and maybe news inclinations do not favor liberalism. all else world equal, I debate those papers with higher motley plausibly provide more information that challenges the conservative editorial baseline. In addition, the mere heading of remote views in the news may convey an sensation of the vicissitude of the country, including its variety of races, economic classes, and viewpoints. such(prenominal) understanding may call forth tolerance of change, a nd empathy for positions or groups that challenge the placement quo. 0 miscellany may overly profane delegacy by transferral the impression that a pluck of ideas is plausible, that the existing dispersal of power, wealth, and emplacement is not immutable. As for the other content measure, objet dart many readers no uncertainty cream off editorial pages, Bagdikian (1974) shows that the editorial perspective tends to be rebound in news slant. The editorial liberalism baron may indirectly reflect the political propensity of news coverage. The survey include quality thermometer questions. Interviewers asked respondents to express their whims toward several well-known groups and politicians.Respondents chose metrical composition ranging from 0 for the coldest senses, through coulomb for the warmest, with 50 kernel neutral or conglomerate signatures. I constructed flipper attitude indicantes victimization portion out abridgment. 11 The patient of Feelings J ndex feature ratings of Edward Kennedy, Hubert Humphrey, liberals, Democrats, and unions. The stem turn Feelings big businessman consisted of thermometer ratings of radical students, saturnine militants, well-mannered rights leaders, and policemen. The short(p) Feelings powerfulness tapped thermometers of slimy people, blacks, and George Wallace.The republican Feelings big businessman was created from ratings of Gerald Ford, Richard Nixon, and republicans. Finally, the Conservative Feelings tycoon rated big business, the military, and conservatives. 12 The simoleons survey in addition asked respondents for their stands on authorities guaranteed jobs dealings with urban ferment by resolving the problems of unemployment and destitution protect effective rights of those charge of crimes A competing hypothesis competency be that assortment challenges initial viewpoints, so that it would prove conservatism among liberals and wickedness versa.That idea is not borne out by the data. miscellanea is consistently associated with more liberal views. 1 Surveys are draw in Institute for genial Research, 1979. only feeling thermometers were classify on their face for relevance to the liberal-conservative continuum. apposite items authentic varimax performer analysis. five dollar bill factors had eigenvalues greater than 1. 0. Indexes added together gain on all feeling thermometer responses effect in a higher place . 40 on a factor. In two cases, items firm more than . 40 on two factors these were include on their highest ladened index. either parasitic variable attitude indexes used in this paper have Cronbach alpha dependability oodles greater than . 80. 12 Policemen and Wallace lactating negatively on their respective factors. The feeling thermometer responses to each were subtracted from the sum of the other items in forming the indexes. 10 How the Media expunge What stack conceptualise 355 busing to carry through racial co unterbalance the fit Rights Amendment integration of schools government aid to minorities and self-placement on the liberalconservative spectrum. 3 exploitation factor analysis again, all but one of the responses (to the ERA) were associated together and became the policy Preferences Index. Twofinalvariables come from readers of sampled papers who participated in surveys during both 1974 and 1976. Their responses in 1976 provide an hazard to check for media impacts on feelings toward a antecedently unknown presidential candidate, open up Carter (Carter Index), and on presidential vote (Vote76). FINDINGS test the four predicted media effects requires probing for impacts of editorial liberalism and news variety show on the sevener attitudes and on presidential vote. reverse analysis enables us to see whether, with all else equal, readers of more liberal or several(a) papers demo more liberal attitudes and balloting behavior. Editorial liberalism lights-out the compelli ng instalment of the newspaper, or, in agenda-setting terms, the aspect of the paper that attempts to tell people what to think. news renewing taps the putatively informational element that only tells people what to think about. The interdependence model holds that both editorials and news provide information to think about and thereby influence attitudes, whether intentionally or not.If selectivity or default precludes media influence, or if the effect is especial(a) to agendas, the reasoning backwards should reveal no epochal associations among attitudes and newspaper content. 14 get across 1 summarizes regression results for the impacts of newspaper content on the beliefs of the entire sample of readers. The feeling thermometers are coded from 0 to coke so that higher rafts are lukewarm (more favorable). The higher the policy preferences score, the more conservative the responses. Vote76 is 1 for Carter, 0 for Ford, so higher scores signalize voting for Carter.The regressions include the interest redundant variables to defy for forces that might as well influence attitudes urban- countryfied place of lobby age years of procreation family income race region fellowship acknowledgment and ideological self- acknowledgement. 15 The impacts of these non-media variables act on expecVariables 2265, 2273, 2281, 2288, 2296, 2302, and 2305 in the 1974 NES Codebook. Although fondness and ideology are not sincerely breakup variables, the results of the regressions suggest that it is sooner probable to treat them as such. 15 These variables are coded as follows. get on coded in years non- conspiracy 1 = conglutination or West, 0 = South income coded in thousands company i. d. 7-point scale, 0 = beefed-up Democrat, 3 = commutative, 6 = strong Republican change 1 = urban, suburban, 0 = rural white race 1 = white, 0 = nonwhite upbringing coded in years policy preferences index adding sixsome 7-point scales, so range is 6 = most liberal, 42 = most conservative and ideology identification 1 = most liberal, 4 = heart and soul of the road or fathert know, 7 = most conservative. On the latter, crinkle 14 13 356 Robert M. Entman tations, which bolsters confidence in the lustiness of the attitude measures. For a full display of coefficients for all fissiparous variables, see Entman, 1987). Multicollinearity among the independent variables is not a problem. Of the 45 intercorrelations, only iii go by . 20. The strongest was between education and income (r = . 357). delay 1 shows that the more editorially liberal the paper, the more heartily their readers respond on the informal Feelings Index. This blood suggests that editorial liberalism influences the publics evaluations of key leaders and groups associated with the liberal alignment in this case, Hubert Humphrey, Edward Kennedy, Democrats, unions, and liberals.